Coastal vulnerabilities include rising sea levels that affect homes and coastal infrastructure, saltwater intrusion that damages paddy fields and freshwater supplies, coastal erosion that accelerates shoreline retreat, fisheries decline that threatens micro‑businesses such as shrimp‑paste and dried‑fish producers, and mangrove ecosystem degradation that reduces natural coastal protection.

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Flood‑prone areas are experiencing more intense and unpredictable rainfall that increases flood frequency, with riverine and flash floods affecting the East Coast, Kedah, Sabah, and Sarawak, causing damage to homes, crops, equipment, and community facilities, as well as posing health and safety risks, displacement, and loss of income.

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Highland vulnerabilities include landslides and slope failures driven by extreme rainfall and land‑use pressure, soil erosion that degrades agricultural land, rising temperatures that affect highland crops such as vegetables and tea, road disruptions that limit access to markets, schools, and essential services, and persistent waste‑management challenges due to rugged terrain and limited landfill capacity.

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